Andragogy
and distance education
Êóð³ííèé Î.Â.,Ïàòîêà Þ.Þ., Ñóìñüêèé
íàö³îíàëüíèé àãðàðíèé óí³âåðñèòåò
Andragogy, as promulgated by the late Malcolm
Knowles, is a set of assumptions designed to facilitate adult learning and
program planning. Distance education is a process of delivering education used
extensively by adult learners. Burge (1988) proposed that the implications of
andragogy to distance education be examined. This article continues in that
direction. Following a brief overview of andragogical development, the author
presents andragogy as a framework for discussing distance education programs
designed for the adult learner. Andragogically compatible processes, such as
the "general to specific" approach for developing learning contracts
and individualizing course projects, and the "group charter" concept
for learner participation in asynchronous discussion forums, are presented and
discussed as examples of applying andragogy to climate setting and learner
involvement in distance education settings.
Andragogy
The late Malcolm Knowles spent a career trying to formulate a theory of adult
learning based on research and experience related to the characteristics of
adult learners. It was not until the mid-1960's that he was exposed to the term
"andragogy" by a Yugoslavian adult educator who was attending a
summer session workshop at Boston University" (Knowles, 1990, p. 54).
Knowles realized that this term more adequately encapsulated his ideas. In
1968, "Androgogy, Not Pedagogy" was published. This introduced the
term to North America and began the rise in popularity of the concept and the
term.
By the end of the third quarter of the 20th century, the concept of
andragogy was firmly a part of adult education vernacular, practice and policy.
It was more fully defined and developed with Knowles' 1970 publication of
his now classic work, The Modern Practice of Adult Education: Andragogy
Versus Pedagogy. He recognized that "adult education theorists in both
Europe (especially Germany and Yugoslavia) and in North America are rapidly
developing a distinctive theory of adult learning. And from this theory is
evolving a new technology for the education of adults" (Knowles, 1970, p.
38). To differentiate this new technology from pedagogy, he indicated that he
was giving this new technology a new name: andragogy, which he defined as
"the art and science of helping adults learn." (Knowles, 1970, p.
38). Further, he indicated that andragogy was "premised on at least four
crucial assumptions about the characteristics of adult learners that are
different from the assumptions about child learners on which pedagogy is
premised" (Knowles, 1970, p. 39). These assumptions related to the adult
self-concept, experience, readiness to learn, and orientation to learning.
Initially Knowles saw andragogy and pedagogy as being at opposite ends of a
continuum. This was reflected in the subtitle of the book. Many educators
reported to Knowles that the model had application to youth and children;
"that young people learned better, too, when the andragogical model was
applied" (Knowles, 1984, p. 6). So prevalent were these reports that in
1980, he revised the book and changed the subtitle to "From Pedagogy to
Andragogy." He also added an additional assumption (motivation) to the
previous four.
Knowles (1984) maintained that andragogy was a "system of alternative sets
of assumptions" (p. 64) about adult learning based on adult learning
research and experience. He constantly admonished educators of adults to
recognize that these assumptions were not empirically validated nor was
andragogy a theory of adult learning. These admonitions not withstanding, many
adult educators debated the value of andragogy as a theory of adult learning
and program development rather than a set of alternative assumptions. Knowles
himself seems to have added to this debate when he wrote the following: "I
believe that andragogy qualifies as a theory according to both definitions (in
Webster's Ninth Collegiate Dictionary). However, I prefer to think of it as a
model of assumptions about learning or a conceptual framework that serves as a
basis for an emergent theory" (Knowles, 1989, p.112).
A major contribution of Knowles was the development and dissemination of the
andragogical process of planning and operating educational programs for
individual learners and organizations. The andragogical process consists of the
following seven elements: (a) the establishment of a climate conducive to adult
learning, (b) the creation of an organizational structure for participative
learning, (c) the diagnosis of needs for learning, (d) the formulation of
directions of learning (objectives), (e) the development of a design of
activities, (f) the operation of the activities, (g) the re-diagnosis of needs
for learning (evaluation) (Knowles, 1984, pp. 14-18).
Distance Education
Distance education and distance learning programs are popular ways for adult
learners to attain educational objectives. Moore and Kearsley (1996) indicate
that "around the country and around the world, most distance education
students are adults between the ages of 25 and 50. Consequently the more one
understands the nature of adult learning, the better one can understand the
nature of distance learning" (p. 153). The technology associated with this
phenomenon allows virtually instantaneous access to instruction at times and
places that are convenient to the adult learner rather than for the instructor
or the institution. Distance education is a prominent and growing way to reach
a widely dispersed population
Moore and Kearsley (1996)
define distance education as follows:
Distance education is planned learning that normally occurs in a different
place from teaching and as a result
requires special techniques of course design, special instructional techniques,
special methods of communication by electronic and other technology, as well as special organizational and
administrative
arrangements
Verduin and Clark (1991) discuss how distance education serves adult learners:
"Before any propositions or designs can be advanced for effective distance
education, recent research on what is known about adults, their learning
styles, their motivations, and other related qualities needs to be reviewed and
analyzed" (p. 21). They present a model of distance education and indicate
that "further support for our model comes from some of the ideas
associated with andragogy and learning styles" (p. 134). Moore and
Kearsley (1996) recognize the value of andragogy as a "very helpful basis
for the design and teaching of distance education courses, particularly with
respect to motivational aspects" (p. 153).
How does andragogy apply in distance education settings? The response to this
question is the basis for the remainder of this article.
Learner Involvement
Knowles (1980) wrote "… the starting point in program planning is always
the adults' interests, even though the end objective may be to meet their (and
an institution's and society's) 'real' needs (p. 82). Facilitators in distance
learning settings need to recognize and value that often they are dealing with
experienced and competent individuals. Distance learning frequently involves the
use of learning contracts or course completion plans in which learners
negotiate with course tutors to design learning activities. The learning
contract or course completion plan usually involves some or all of the
following elements: (a) Description of Course or Individualized Learning
Experience, (b) Learning Objectives, (c) Resources for Accomplishing Objectives
(books, articles, journals, internet sources, individuals, and other
materials), (d) Documentation, and (e) Timeline.
Using the "general to specific" approach, each element of the process
potentially allows for individual needs to be met. Generally, catalog course
descriptions in college catalogs follow this approach. The first sentence or
two provides a general overview of the course. The remaining sentences provide
examples of specifics related to the course. Online course or individualized
learning experience descriptions negotiated in this manner are responsive to
individual needs. The "general to specific" approach can be used for required
or elective, credit or non-credit courses as well.
The formulation of learning objectives presents an excellent opportunity for
the adult learner to express needs and to be an active player in deciding what
is to be learned and when it will be learned. Application of the "general
to specific" approach when designing learning objectives is useful when
seeking ways to meet individual learning needs. Here, the learner negotiates
both general and specific objectives clearly emanating from the course or
learning experience description. Knowles (1980) points out that learning
objectives "can be made congruent with the spirit of andragogy by
describing what …[a learning plan]…will help learners do, rather than what it
will do to people" (p. 121). The "general to specific" approach
also can be applied to the selection of resources and serves as the framework
for documentation of course completion.
Individually designed course projects are another way of encouraging active
participation in the learning process. In these instances, facilitators and
learners have created course projects reflecting individual interests and
needs. In addition to the more traditional term paper, final projects can be
audio- or video-tapes, a CD-ROM, a revised manual or other means of
demonstrating accomplishment of individual learning objectives. Participation in asynchronous online
discussion forums can be enhanced through the use of a "group
charter" in which the members of the discussion group set and agree on the
expectations, rules, and responsibilities to be utilized within the group. This
process taps into the notion that the more adult learners have participated in
the formulation of rules and practices, the greater will be their
participation.
The need for recognition is another key to success in andragogically-oriented
distance learning programs. Distance educators who understand this need should
do the following:
offer programs designed to increase the economic, social, psychological, and
spiritual security of adults, and
will provide an environment in which they feel
secure while learning. They … also
accept the fact that all people need
recognition and they will be
ingenious in creating numerous opportunities for
adults to obtain recognition
constructively. (Knowles, 1980, p. 86)
As Burge (1988)
indicated, andragogy provides a context for developing distance education
programs. It also provides a framework to build a climate conducive to adult
learning and a process for more actively involving the adult learner in the
distance learning process. Distance educators and program developers are
encouraged to review the vast information regarding andragogy and to
incorporate the thinking of Knowles and others when developing distance
education programs.
References
Mark H. Rossman. Andragogy and distance learning: together in the new
Millenium.New Horizons in adult education. Volume 14, Number 1,
Winter, 2000
Brookfield, S.B. (1986). Understanding
and facilitating adult learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Burge, L. (1988). Beyond andragogy: Some explorations for distance learning
design. Journal of Distance Education, 3 (1): 5-23.
Knowles, M.S. (1968). Andragogy, not pedagogy. Adult Leadership, 16
(10), 350-386.
Knowles, M.S. (1970). The modern practice of adult education: Andragogy vs.
Knowles, M.S. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy
to andragogy. (2nd Edition). Chicago, IL: Association
Press/Follett.
Merriam, S.B. & R.S. Caffarella, (1999). Learning in adulthood. (2nd
Edition). San Francisco, CA.: Jossey-Bass.
Moore, M.G. & G. Kersey. (1996). Distance education: A systems view. Belmont,
CA.: Wadsworth.
Peterson's guide to distance learning programs. (1998). Princeton, NJ:
Peterson's.