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VIII Ìåæäóíàðîäíàÿ
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«Íàó÷íîå ïðîñòðàíñòâî Åâðîïû – 2012»
Ïîëèòîëîãèÿ/10. Ðåãèîíàëüíûå ïîëèèòè÷åñêèå ïðîöåññû
Dinara Aitkazy
student of
Master EUCAIS program
A
short account of the first steps to European integration.
At the end of the World War II, Europe was totally
drained and exhausted. Age-old trade links had been cut off and any heavy
industry or vital manufacturing that had not been destroyed was operating below
capacity in a Europe.
The continent was relegated to play a supporting role
on the international stage owing to the increased might of US and the Soviet
Union and the growing rivalry between those two countries. In this context, a
divided Western Europe quickly realized that the path to its survival lay in
working together and establishing effective, common institutions, if necessary
with American financial, technical and military support. There was a great
political instability accompanied by heightened social tensions, and innovative
diplomatic solutions were urgently needed, even at regional level [1].
The
economic and social consequences
The economic crises and stock-exchange crashes of the
inter-war years, led European leaders to take rigorous measures. The imbalance
between supply and demand in domestic consumer products pushed prices higher
and aggravated budget deficits both internally and externally. Countries
were going into debt in order to finance reconstruction programs and to correct
social inequalities. Some essential sectors of the European economy had been
nationalized; modernization and retooling programs
were carried out. While unemployment affected a large part of the continent,
some countries, paradoxically, faced a demand of labor in sectors essential for
economic revival. Although, German prisoners had been sent to work, programs
involving the large-scale migration of foreign workers had been put in train in
order to meet the needs of agriculture, coal and steel industries. It was in
this difficult economic context that Belgium, France and Italy signed protocol
on cooperation and immigration that provided for coal to be supplied to Italy,
which its economy needed, in exchange for thousands of unemployed Italians.
More than 500 000 Italians immigrated to countries in Western Europe
between 1946 and 1955 [2].
1.
George Marshall’s Plan (1947)
The Marshall Plan
(officially the European Recovery Program) was the primary program of the US
for rebuilding and creating a stronger economic foundation for the countries of
Europe. The initiative was named for George Catlett Marshall (US Secretary of
State) and was largely the creation of State
Department officials (especially William L.
Clayton and George F. Kennan).
In June 1947 at Harvard University in Boston G.
Marshall in his speech offered economic aid to Europe [3].
On 3 April 1948 President of the US Harry S.
Truman signed the Marshall Plan into law, establishing the Economic
Cooperation Administration (ECA) to administer the program. Formally, the
ECA began operation in July 1948. In the same year, the participating countries
signed an accord establishing a master financial-aid-coordinating agency, the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC,
later OECD – Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development) [4].
Its official mission statement supported
the European economy promoting European production, strength European currency,
and assist in international trade, especially with the US. The project was
originally planned for all European countries but the negative attitude of the
Soviet Union and the states under its influence obstructed already narrow paths
of communication between East and West.
The US had his own economic interest in requiring
Europe to become wealthy enough and it was increasing the import US goods in
Europe. Unofficial goal of the Marshall Plan and of ECA was the containment of
growing Soviet influence in Europe, evident of that was the growth and strength
of communist parties in Czechoslovakia,
France and Italy. Initially the UK had supported the anti-communist factions in
some countries in Europe but due to its exhausted condition it requested the US
to continue its efforts.
The ECA had an office in each of the sixteen
countries participating in the Marshall Plan. The Marshall Plan money was
transferred to the funds which were administered by the local governments and
the ECA. The Each office of the organization was headed by major American
business figures, who advised the process. The Marshall Plan aid was divided
among the participant states on a straight per capita basis. A larger amount
was given to the major industrial powers because their resuscitation was
essential for European rebirth. The cooperative allocation of funds was
encouraged and on the government’s meetings, business and labor leaders were
examining the economy. Somewhat more aid was directed towards the Allied
nations, with less for those that had been part of the Axis or
remained neutral.
The Marshall Plan aid mainly was used for
purchasing goods from the US. The European nations had exhausted their foreign
exchange reserves during the war, and the aid represented their
sole opportunity to buy goods from abroad. At the beginning of the plan these
imports were mostly food and fuel but later it turned towards reconstruction needs
as was originally intended.
A part
from upper mentioned funds, there were established counterpart funds which used Marshall
Plan to establish funds in the local currency.
According to the ECA rules 60% of these funds had to be invested in industry. In Germany
administered funds played a crucial role in lending money to private
enterprises for rebuilding. In 1949–50, 40% of the investment in the German
coal industry was by these funds. The companies were obligated to repay the
loans to the government, and the money then be lent out to another businesses.
Thus, these funds played a central role in the reindustrialization of Germany.
The other 40%
of the counterpart funds were used to pay down the debt, stabilize the
currency, or invest in non-industrial projects.
Another effective ECA initiative was the
Technical Assistance Program. This program funded groups of European engineers
and industrialists to visit the US and tour factories, industrial facilities
and mines, so that they could then copy the American advances at home.
Moreover, several hundred American technical advisors were sent to Europe.
The Marshall Plan was originally scheduled to
end in 1953. But American Republicans, who were against the Marshall Plan, had
gained seats in the Congressional elections in 1950,
and conservative opposition to the plan was revived. Even though the plan ended
in 1951, American aid to Europe continued through different forms afterwards.
Even though Marshall Plan played an important
impact in European cooperation, it was not the realization of the Europeans
vision of the united and independent Europe.
2.
NATO (1949)
In March 1948 the UK, France and Benelux states signed
the Treaty of Collective Defense against Soviet Union and Germany. This
protective measure due to the later development against Germany was abolished.
The process of economic and political splitting of
Europe into East and West accelerated. The division of Germany into an Eastern
and Western part constituted more than a symbolic step. The military division
at the formal level became the question of time.
3.
Union of European federalists
(1946)
The Union of European Federalists (UEF) is a
non-governmental European organization, which was campaigning for a federal Europe. It was active in Europe at national and
local levels for more than 50 years and it consisted of 20 constituent
organizations from 14 European countries [6].
It was founded in September 1946 in
Hertenstein, Switzerland with the belief that only a European Federation, based
on the idea of unity in diversity, could overcome the division of the European
continent. UEF was one of the first initiatives which towards the creation of
united Europe. Federalists believed that only a common effort of European
citizens working towards this goal
could create a peaceful and democratic Europe guaranteeing freedom and the protection of human rights. On 15 and 16 December 1946 in Paris, UEF officially
brought into life its function: to co-ordinate and intensify the activities of
the different movements and to organize them into a federal structure.
4.
Other initiatives
Despite of the leading role of the UEF in the early
years after WWII, many other foyers emerged and mobilized people who were
interested in a European dimension of post-war reconstruction into the groups,
leagues and movements. All of them took action in parallel, with more or less
far going goals.
5.
Speech of Winston Churchill
(September 1946)
Winston Churchill
during his visits to Europe and America on several occasions, expressed his
views on the future of Europe. The united Europe was his principal foreign
policy objective and he was actually the first high level politician to take
sides in a debate that then had been the battleground of a few activists.
On September 1946, at
the University of Zurich, he gave a speech on European unity that was a
sensation, in essential, he postulated a United States
of Europe. Churchill advocated Franco-German rapprochement and
proposed ‘a kind of United States of Europe’ (but without the involvement of
Great Britain), set the scene for a future federation of non-Communist Western
European nations [7]. On the other hand, he declared that Great Britain might
find its niche between the USA and the USSR and “be a friend and sponsor for
the new Europe”. Churchill aimed his speech specifically at the world leaders.
Winston Churchill’s Zurich speech was the
starting point for the tide of opinion in favor of a united post-war Europe.
6.
European Movement and the Congress of the Hague
(1948)
During the winter 1947-48 the “European Movement” was
born.
Many hopes were related towards the Congress of
Europe, organized by the Movement
in May 1948. The Congress was supposed to close symbolically the period of
nervous and hazy relations, zealous quest for the European base and reserved
attitudes. The most influential politicians from France, Germany, the UK, the
Benelux and Italy discussed future development of Europe. The final result
brought disappointment, especially for those who assumed that the way to a federal
Europe would already be open.
The Congress did not create European structure. The
only one real idea was the first European organization – Council of Europe. In
1949, the status of the Council of
Europe was signed by ten states; this gave the organization the
inter-governmental character. Council
of Europe was formed by ideas of parliamentary democracy and human
rights. The act of the establishing of such an organization approached Europe
to the process of integration.
The European
Convention on Human Rights and the European Court of Human Rights from 1951 confirmed this trend.
These two lines should be distinguished from economic integration but their
value orientation undoubtedly played a relevant role in the process of European
integration. The important task was to build a modern and united Europe,
capable partnership with the US in the long run. But this constituted a
formidable and especially long-term objective. Furthermore, American policies
represented a crucial factor in West European development in the 1950s.
7.
The parliamentary Assembly
8.
The Monnet Plan
At the end of the war, Jean Monnet
(Commissioner-General of the French National Planning Board), drafted the first
revival and modernization plan for France. He considered that economic
cooperation with Germany was essential, particularly its industrial potential.
However, he knew that it was too early to move towards total economic union at
European level because of the vast discrepancies in prices, wages and tax
regimes and also the general public was not ready for it. He believed that it
would be extremely difficult to build a European edifice from the top down. He
foresaw, a Europe that was built on a functional basis by integrating key
sectors of the economies [9].
What was the first real achievement of the
integration process?
·
It would mark the birth of a united Europe;
·
It would make war between member states impossible;
·
It would encourage world peace;
·
It would transform Europe by a 'step by step' process (building
through sectoral supranational communities) leading to the
unification of Europe democratically, including both East and West Europe
separated by the Iron Curtain;
·
It would create the world's first supranational institution, and
·
It would create the world's first international anti-cartel agency;
·
It would create a single market across the Community;
·
It would, starting with the coal and steel sector, revitalize the whole
European economy by similar community processes.
Thus, coal and steel industries were removed from
full national competencies and placed under supranational control. A
supranational authority had built a decision centre for production,
investments, social conditions and to a certain extent prices as well.
“Supranational” was the key word that meant the qualitative moving in the
history of a European unification. From the legal perspective the Treaty
enabled the development of conditions for the rise and application of a unique
legal system of European Communities. The Treaty became the keystone of the
European integration in a broad sense. The Treaty created the High Authority,
which governed the ECSC. The
High Authority members were designated by the governments of the member states.
The Authority's principle innovation was its supranational character. It
had a broad area of competence to ensure the objectives of the treaty were met
and that the common market functioned smoothly. The High Authority could issue
three types of
legal instruments: Decisions, which were
entirely binding laws; Recommendations, which had binding
aims but the methods were left to member states; and Opinions, which had no
legal force. In 1952, Jean Monnet became the first president of the High
Authority.
On 11 August 1952, the US was the first country recognized the Community
and dealt with the ECSC on coal and steel matters, establishing its delegation
in Brussels. President Monnet responded by choosing Washington D.C. as the site
of the ECSC's first external presence.
The main motivations leading to create the world's first supranational European Community
(ECSC) were:
1. make war between member states
impossible;
2. revitalize the whole European
economy by starting with the coal and steel sector;
3. and create a single market
across the Community.
During the 1950s, it was believed that no country
could wage war without a strong, independent coal and steel industry. At the
same time, Europe was in severe need of reconstruction, after just ended war,
and coal and steel were vital raw
materials.
Because West Germany had the potential to dominate
economically and demographically by threatening its neighbors’ security, in
France there was still fear that Germany when it
recovered would attack France. So this problem afforded two
possible solutions: either prevent Germany from growing militarily powerful
again by curbing its potential for growth; or
try to extract a promise from Germany not to take advantage of its military
superiority once the balance of power tipped in its favor. The second was not
seemed as a solution. On the other hand, the ECSC promised to end allied
restrictions on German coal and steel production for industrial use, and thus
was of economic value. But more importantly, it enabled Germany to demonstrate
its peaceful intentions to its neighbors.
The six Member States of the future ECSC used coal
more than any other fuel, and the Ruhr (the richest and most productive
coalfields in Europe) was the principal region for coal deposits. At that time,
coal accounted for nearly 70 % of fuel consumption in Western Europe.
Although the Six together with UK accounted for 20 % of total world coal
production. Coal from Eastern Europe was becoming scarcer, while American coal
was still very expensive and could be bought only with dollars, which were
exactly what Europe lacked.
Steel was the most important raw material for
weapons manufacture and for industry in general. Each country developed its own
steel capacity in relative isolation and this carried the risk of
over-production. The fundamental French concern was that steel production in
Germany would be controlled by strong industrial cartels and that the steel
would be used for weapons production. The pooling of steel was seen as a means
of destroying the cartels’ potential influence and preventing future
rearmament. Finally, this necessarily meant that a new Franco-German war would
be out of the question [11].
France with US
support removed the Saar area from Germany and turned it under complete French
economic control. The area returned to German in 1957 but France retained the
right to mine from its coal mines until 1981. International Authority for the Ruhr (IAR) controlled production levels, pricing,
and sale points, thus ensuring that France received a large portion of the Ruhr
coal production at low prices. Upon taking effect the ECSC replaced the IAR.
The Ruhr
Agreement permitted the Germans establish the Federal
Republic of Germany.
Conclusion
After World War II Europe was harmed in
infrastructure and dynamics terms. Trade links had been cut off and any heavy
industry or vital manufacturing that had not been destroyed was operating below
capacity. A divided Western Europe quickly realized that the path to its
survival lay in working together and establishing effective, common
institutions, if necessary with American financial, technical and military
support.
In order to stimulate economic growth and development
the Europe made several efforts, yet not all of them gave a positive effect on
European integration.
One of the major sources of the economic
restoration of Europe was the Marshall’s Plan. But, even though it played an
important role in European cooperation, it was not the realization of the
Europeans vision of the united and independent Europe.
At the same time, coal and steel production were
important raw materials for industrial use, and thus were economic value. There
was not enough coal production for all Europe to satisfy their need,
while American coal was too expensive and could be bought only with dollars,
which Europe lacked.
After the founding of the European Coal and Steel
Community with its supranational impact and thus the function of the real
turning-point of the European integration, much more indications of European
rapprochement. Nevertheless, it is not wrong to speak of a hard birth of a
common European will as a result transformed into the mosaic composed often
from many inhomogeneous parts.
The central aim around Monnet can be characterized as
setting a European order being immune against the catastrophic nationalist wars
that twice had devastated the continent. But this plan could be fulfilled only
partly as time did not mature to the higher stage of integration.
The United States wanted create of a strong West
European bulwark against the Soviet Union, as in order win the Cold War. French
goal was to tie Germany down in a compact that would enable to preserve the
strategic French position in Western Europe. German was directed towards a
return to the rank of an established power and towards keeping the prospect of
reunification as well.
Finalizing this paper, to hold these different
programs together were economic stability and prosperity of Western Europe
which came after establishing the ECSC.
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