Исторические науки/2. Общая история

G.V. Toropchin, PhD researcher

Kemerovo State University, Russia

Peaceful Use of Nuclear Energy in Australia and Germany in 1991-2011

This article is primarily devoted to the comparative analysis of the peculiarities of nuclear power use in Australia and Germany over the last two decades. According to the 1968 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, signed and ratified by both the Commonwealth of Australia and Federal Republic of Germany, peaceful application of atomic energy and technologies is fully encouraged. The choice of Australia and Germany as objects of this scientific research is predetermined by the leading role that both of these states play in their regions. Another reason is the anti-nuclear movement that is strong within these two countries in particular, thus it would help define characteristic features of the eco-movement’s influence on the future of nuclear energy for the world.

There are several most wide-spread spheres of application of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes: namely, at nuclear power plants, research reactors, industrial enterprises, nuclear medicine facilities.

In order to analyze the issue to full extent, one has to take into consideration the significance of the chosen countries for the existing nuclear non-proliferation regime. Australia, due to its geographical location and international mission, was one of the initiators of the South Pacific nuclear-weapons free zone establishment (under the 1985 Treaty of Rarotonga), while Germany remains among so-called nuclear sharing countries (i.e. participating in NATO’s policy of nuclear deterrence and hosting U.S. tactical nuclear weapons on its territory). However, neither of these states possesses nuclear weapons (moreover, there is no have nuclear power generation capacity in Australia).

Germany, following the reunification of the German Democratic Republic and Federal Republic of Germany in 1990, had to face the situation of complete overhaul of nuclear power prospects for the country. E.g. in West Germany, there even were premises for closed nuclear fuel cycle creation. As for the East Germany nuclear power reactors, they were closed shortly after the reunion took place as long as they failed to meet the necessary safety standards. Projects to construct more reactors were abandoned too. Uranium mining in itself was quite actively introduced in East Germany ever since late 1940s; however, after 1990 these mines were shut down. Basically, in 1990s nuclear energy policy principles (that had only been valid for the Federal Republic of Germany before the reunification) entered into force on the whole territory of the federation, including eastern regions. Another characteristic feature of this period of time is harmonizing the corresponding legislation on the national level and acts of the European Communities and European Union (for instance, Energy Charter). Besides, inner political situation in the country definitely had effect on the prospects of nuclear power use: the Red-Green coalition actually confirmed the will to abandon atomic energy in 1998 (although it was meant to be done rather gradually). The year of 2002 was marked by nuclear energy phase-out bill (officially Act on the Structured Phase-out of Nuclear Power) which was eventually adopted: it was supposed that Germany would totally give up nuclear energy production by 2020s. But after numerous disputes on gas exportation between Russian Federation and Belarus as well as Russia and Ukraine in late 2000s, proponents of nuclear power in Germany regained attention (inter alia, accentuating the need to retain national independence in the sphere of energy). After Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear power plant disaster in March 2011, the future of nuclear power plants in Germany was again compromised by strenuous opposition. As such, on May 30, 2011, Germany formally announced plans to abandon nuclear energy completely within 11 years, by 2022 or even 2021 [1]. Along with Belgium, Germany is one of the two states that expressed intention to reduce the quantity of operational nuclear reactors in the country. 8 reactors were already closed in August 2011. Fukushima accident affected German business giants as well: in 2011, Siemens proclaimed its full-scale withdrawal from the nuclear industry, which is rather important, keeping in mind Siemens’s involvement in the building of the planned reactor in Olkiluoto, Finland. However, as of 2011, Germany still remained one of the world leaders in the sphere of nuclear energy production, regardless of serious decline of the nuclear power share in the energy mix (22.4% in 2010 and 17.7% the following year). Speaking of scientific research, co-operation within CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research) can serve as an example.

Nuclear energy in Australia has been a heavily debated issue throughout the history (especially in terms of plans to introduce nuclear power plants). Perhaps, the most important factor in this regard is that, throughout the last decades, Australia has been one of the three major uranium exporters on the planet (together with Kazakhstan and Canada), having in possession more than 26% of the world uranium deposits [2, pp. 123-128], therefore developments in this field in the country immediately reflect on the global nuclear raw materials market. In the end of 1980s it seemed as though anti-nuclear campaigners prevailed in their assertive rhetoric: thanks to low uranium prices and world public’s concern after Chernobyl disaster, exports of the nuclear raw materials from the Commonwealth of Australia significantly decreased. In 1990s, Bob Hawke’s (1983-1991) and Paul Keating’s Labour governments (1991-1996) as well as to some extent John Howard’s Liberal governments (1996-2007) did not decide to open up new uranium mine sites, not least because of public pressure. One cannot underestimate significant importance of the public opinion and civic society efforts in 1990s and 2000s: protest marches in major Australian cities in 1998 even preconditioned the blocking of the proposal to create another nuclear mine, at Jabiluka. Proposal of establishing the nuclear waste dump that would store up to 20% of world’s nuclear waste in Western Australia in 1998 was also met with harsh resistance. In 2000s, Australian officials (including incumbent Prime Minister Julia Gillard) also claimed that Australia is not going to use nuclear power in order to meet energy demands. One more attempt to establish low-level nuclear waste dump, at Muckaty station, was also strongly opposed in the early 2010s by the local government and landowners. Fukushima event could not go unnoticed for Australia: first of all, Japan used to be one of the biggest importers of Australian uranium; needless to say, adherents of nuclear power also suffered a genuine setback. At any rate, Australian scientists have one research reactor at their disposal. To be precise, HIFAR (High Flux Australian Reactor), situated at Lucas Heights (30 km south of Sydney) was operational since 1958. Nevertheless, in 2007 it was replaced by another state-of-the-art reactor: Prime Minister of Australia opened ANSTO’s OPAL (Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation’s Open Pool Australian Lightwater) 20 MW reactor that exploits low-enriched uranium fuel for «research, scientific, industrial and production» aims [3]. Advances in the nuclear medicine (such as cancer treatment) have been widely applied in Australia.

Thus, there is a number of similarities and differences in terms of peaceful nuclear power in Australia and Germany in the given chronological framework. 2011 Fukushima Dai-ichi accident greatly impacted the plans of dealing with nuclear energy in both countries. Civil society and environmental groups’ role is also considerable (all in all, they have the same motivation to oppose nuclear power: ecological, economic, ethical etc. reasons). Perhaps, the main distinction between the aforementioned countries in this regard is as follows: nuclear power plants still exist and produce a certain amount of energy in the Federal Republic of Germany, whereas the plans to develop nuclear power as a source of energy in Australia are condemned by the majority of the general public and local political establishment.

Literature:

1. Polke-Majewski, K. Dieser Ausstieg hat Bestand / Zeit Online. 30 Mai, 2011 // URL: http://www.zeit.de/politik/deutschland/2011-05/atomkompromiss-schwarz-gelb (access date: 25/01/2013)

2. Торопчин Г.В. Роль Австралийского Союза как экспортёра уранового сырья на мировом рынке / Г.В. Торопчин // Автоматизация и прогрессивные технологии в атомной отрасли: Труды VI международной научно-технической конференции (15-19 октября 2012 г.). – Новоуральск: Изд-во Форт-Диалог, 2012. – 450 с. с ил.

3. OPAL: ANSTO's research reactor / Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation // URL: http://www.ansto.gov.au/discovering_ansto/anstos_research_reactor (access date: 25/01/2013)