Functioning of Negation in a Literary Discourse
The
category of negation is defined as “the wide notion in which the most general
and fundamental properties, features, connections and relationships of
subjects, phenomena of objective world are reflected” [1, p. 240].
The
question whether negation can have the discerning level and whether it
can be emotionally colored is quite disputable in contemporary linguistics. A number of linguists answer this question rather
positively (Vinogradov V.V). However, some scientists stick to the point that negation expresses objectively existing
disjuncture and can not have the discerning level or any
emotional coloring.
The
objective of the present article is to elucidate the peculiarities of
functioning of negation in fictional discourse. The investigation was carried
out on the material of the novel “Posthumous Papers of Pickwick Club” by Ch. Dickens.
Different scholars provide different
definitions of discourse:
·
any
segment of signs (messages) larger than a sentence;
·
any
kind of message;
·
a
specific ensemble of ideas, concepts, categories;
·
phenomena
that are produced, reproduced, and transformed in a particular set of
institutional practices;
·
a
phenomenon through which meaning is given to physical and social realities;
·
language
used by members of a speech community;
·
language
beyond the sentence;
·
a set
of texts directed to each other, especially in conversation;
·
language
in its social and cognitive context;
·
all
forms of spoken interaction as well as any type of written text [4];
Every language has
a definite group of words which independently or in combination with other
means express emotionally colored negation. Every language also uses
units of different language levels. Among them it is possible to highlight lexical, grammatical, intonation and
syntactic means, which convey various
shades of negative meaning. Thus, in English, in order to express emotional negation the following combinations are used: not
for the world, not at all, never at all, not in any respect,
nothing at all, by no means.
E.g.: Mr. Snodgrass seized his friend’s hand
warmly as he enthusiastically replied: "Not for the
worlds!" [5, p. 553].
The example given above shows that the structures with the explicitly-expressed
negation are of the emphatic character. Sometimes, it happens that the combination of meanings of the form emerged in the context can be
expressed in another way; general
meaning of the structure may be taken for the grammatical meaning of the negative form even when the negative form is not
present. That means that negation is
expressed implicitly. This phenomenon can be illustrated with the help of emotional-affirmative
structures interpreted as negative. E.g.: Hang me if I can fell you [5, p. 15].
One
of the questions that is being discussed in
linguistics is the function of the negation in the structure of actual sentence
division. Actual sentence division is the division of the sentence in the
context, into the initial part of the utterance, i.e. theme and what is confirmed in it (theme).
Some
linguists (G.Paul, J.Firbas)
distinguish the third member of the actual sentence division, i.e. transitional element
which is expressed by verbal predicate containing modal and temporal indicators.
Any member of the sentence may play the role of both theme and rheme in
relation to the context or situation [2, p. 35].
The
components of the actual division are distinguished by intonation, position (usually subject stands
at the beginning of the phrase while rheme is at the end of the phrase), by context.
Changes in the
logical stress may be the consequences of the variety of
actual
sentence division. Direct order of the elements, i.e. theme – rheme is called progressive and objective, while reverse order is
called regressive and subjective.
Another approach (V.Mathezius,
O.Lapteva) consisted in the introduction of multiple division inside the rheme
highlighting the communicative center of actual division according to the
degree of communicative loading. It is possible to
systematize the expressive means of the rheme in the following way:
• linear
highlighting;
• intonation
highlighting (oral speech);
• lexical
markers;
• grammatical
markers: articles, syntactic constructions.
The distinction into general and
partial negation leads to the distinction into generally negative and partially
negative sentences. The category of negation is also related to the category of predicativity. Only the negation which modifies the predicate
marks the whole sentence negative.
Sentences with the positive predicate but with the negative particle modifying
another member of the sentence are called
partially negative sentences while sentences
with the negative predicate are called generally negative sentences, i.e. negative
sentences. Each language has its means allowing to elucidate actual sentence division. Negative particle “not”
is such a means.
Functions
of negation in actual sentence division are [3, p. 184]:
• general negation makes
grammatical predicate the nucleus of the utterance (rheme);
• partial negation shifts
from a mere member of the sentence into rheme.
Position of the negative particle before the rheme
is possible only in sentences of the type: I have not spoken to you; It is not
you who I have spoken to; It is not me (I) who have
spoken to you [2, p. 34].
It is considered that partially negative sentences affirm something by negating something. It is really
so, but it gives no reasons to exclude partially negative sentences form the list
of negations. The difference is that partially negative sentences possess the least
degree of negation. They always mean confirmation contrary to what is negated.
In general, it’s worth mentioning different types of negation which are expressed in negative sentences:
1. sentences with the
negative verb, amplified adverb or pronoun have the greatest degree of
negation: I can’t
say that has occurred to disturb the monotony of this awful existence [5, p. 219].
2. sentences with negative predicate, and
impersonal sentences with “not”, “no”: He called no man name that day and was not
heard to swear once [5, p. 219].
3. sentences
of infinitive construction with the negative pronoun and adverb: “I have
never felt such a jotting in my life”, said Mr. Pickwick [5, p. 144].
4. partially
negative sentences where the degree of negation is defined according to the member of the sentence which is negated: Ten years and a
fever don’t make a young man young [5, p. 561].
Negation of the subject is normally stronger than the negation of the secondary members of the sentence. It is necessary to distinguish cases of negation
intensification for the more accurate
highlighting of the sentence rheme. Theme-negation is
distinguished by different means:
·
The use
of full (stressed) and contracted (unstressed) forms of the negative particle not. In colloquial speech the
contracted form of negation is frequently used: I don’t like the plan, but as I see no other,
and as the happiness of this young lady’s whole life is at stake, I adopt
it [5, p. 251].
·
The use of the full form of the negative particle not in colloquial
speech is considered
to be the deliberate intensification of the negation and the member of the sentence which is negated: She refused you. It does not seem to
break your heart at any rate [5, p. 151].
·
The repetition of negative particle or negative words
is considered to be the intensified
negation: Nothing
has been left undone, my dear sir – nothing whatever [5, p. 200].
The theory of actual sentence division is closely
connected with text linguistics. In a coherent text it is possible to accurately define
actual sentence division, to specify theme and rheme of the
utterance. As a result types of logical connection between sentences of the text (parallel and linear)
are distinguished.
Different means of negation intensification may be used: logical stress;
negative
sentences with “there”; construction “It is/was ...who (which, that)”.
1) In
writing logical stress is singled out graphically. If in a negative sentence the stress falls on a non-negated member
of the sentence, intonationally singled out
word becomes the rheme of the saying.
For example: Mr. Pickwick swore that no
governess should ever enter into his doors again [5, p. 62].
2) Negative
sentences with “there”. Construction “there is nothing (no, not)” converts the subject of the sentence into the rheme of the utterance.
For example: “There’s nothing in the story,
marvelous in what I’m going to relate”, said the dismal man; “there’s
nothing uncommon in it” [5, p. 58].
3) Construction
“It is/was ...who (which, that), is used to single out any member of the sentence. If negation is in the
structure of this construction both means
of the rheme highlighting (negation and syntactic
construction) are one-way directed.
For example: It was Samuel Weller, who
until now had observed a dignified silence [5, p. 625].
Thus,
the category of negation plays an important role in the formation of the actual sentence division.
Literature:
1.
Êîãóàêîâ Í.È. Ëîãè÷åñêèé ñëîâàðü. – Ì.: Íàóêà, 1975. – 240 ñ.
2.
Ìóìèíîâ Ê.Ï., Ðàõèìîâ Ñ.Ð. Îòðèöàíèå è àêòóàëüíîå ÷ëåíåíèå
ïðåäëîæåíèÿ // Ñá. íàó÷. òð.
ÒÀØÃÓ, 1979. – Âûï. 578. – Ñ. 33-37.
3.
Mykhailenko V.V. Models of “not” //
Íàóêîâèé â³ñíèê ×åðí³âåöüêîãî óí³âåðñèòåòó: Ãåðìàíñüêà ô³ëîëîã³ÿ. – ×åðí³âö³:
Ðóòà. – 2001. – Âèï. 60. – Ñ.
183-190.
4.
Mykytiuk I. On Discourse Analysis
Theory // Ìàòåð³àëè êîíôåðåíö³¿ “˳íãâ³ñòèêà ³
âåðáàëüíà êîìóí³êàö³ÿ ó 21îìó ñòîë³òò³: òåíäåíö³¿ òà ïåðñïåêòèâè”. – Êè¿â: Ëîãîñ.
– 2000. – Ñ. 48-49.
5.
Dickens